diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore
index f497809b7..b9013087f 100644
--- a/.gitignore
+++ b/.gitignore
@@ -176,6 +176,7 @@ llamaboard_cache/
 llamaboard_config/
 saves/
 output/
+outputs/
 wandb/
 swanlog/
 generated_predictions.jsonl
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/accelerator/interface.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/accelerator/interface.py
index b464198b2..6a4c51962 100644
--- a/src/llamafactory/v1/accelerator/interface.py
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/accelerator/interface.py
@@ -174,7 +174,7 @@ class DistributedInterface:
         """Get device mesh for specified dimension."""
         if dim is None:
             raise ValueError("dim must be specified.")
-        elif self.model_device_mesh is None:
+        elif not self._is_distributed:
             return None
         elif dim in self.strategy.data_mesh_dim_names:
             return self.data_device_mesh[dim.value]
@@ -183,14 +183,14 @@ class DistributedInterface:
 
     def get_group(self, dim: Dim | None = None) -> Optional[ProcessGroup]:
         """Get process group for specified dimension."""
-        if self.model_device_mesh is None or dim is None:
+        if not self._is_distributed or dim is None:
             return None
         else:
             return self.get_device_mesh(dim).get_group()
 
     def get_rank(self, dim: Dim | None = None) -> int:
         """Get parallel rank for specified dimension."""
-        if self.model_device_mesh is None:
+        if not self._is_distributed:
             return 0
         elif dim is None:
             return self._rank
@@ -199,7 +199,7 @@ class DistributedInterface:
 
     def get_world_size(self, dim: Dim | None = None) -> int:
         """Get parallel size for specified dimension."""
-        if self.model_device_mesh is None:
+        if not self._is_distributed:
             return 1
         elif dim is None:
             return self._world_size
@@ -216,7 +216,7 @@ class DistributedInterface:
 
     def all_gather(self, data: TensorLike, dim: Dim | None = Dim.DP) -> TensorLike:
         """Gather tensor across specified parallel group."""
-        if self.model_device_mesh is not None:
+        if self._is_distributed:
             return helper.operate_tensorlike(helper.all_gather, data, group=self.get_group(dim))
         else:
             return data
@@ -225,29 +225,32 @@ class DistributedInterface:
         self, data: TensorLike, op: helper.ReduceOp = helper.ReduceOp.MEAN, dim: Dim | None = Dim.DP
     ) -> TensorLike:
         """Reduce tensor across specified parallel group."""
-        if self.model_device_mesh is not None:
+        if self._is_distributed:
             return helper.operate_tensorlike(helper.all_reduce, data, op=op, group=self.get_group(dim))
         else:
             return data
 
     def broadcast(self, data: TensorLike, src: int = 0, dim: Dim | None = Dim.DP) -> TensorLike:
         """Broadcast tensor across specified parallel group."""
-        if self.model_device_mesh is not None:
+        if self._is_distributed:
             return helper.operate_tensorlike(helper.broadcast, data, src=src, group=self.get_group(dim))
         else:
             return data
 
     def sync(self) -> None:
         """Synchronize all processes."""
-        helper.synchronize()
+        if self._is_distributed:
+            helper.synchronize()
 
     def barrier(self) -> None:
         """Barrier all processes."""
-        barrier()
+        if self._is_distributed:
+            barrier()
 
     def destroy(self) -> None:
         """Destroy all processes."""
-        destroy_process_group()
+        if self._is_distributed:
+            destroy_process_group()
 
 
 if __name__ == "__main__":
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/config/arg_parser.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/config/arg_parser.py
index aee30efaf..38eddd54a 100644
--- a/src/llamafactory/v1/config/arg_parser.py
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/config/arg_parser.py
@@ -30,9 +30,9 @@ from .training_args import TrainingArguments
 InputArgument = dict[str, Any] | list[str] | None
 
 
-def get_args(args: InputArgument = None) -> tuple[DataArguments, ModelArguments, TrainingArguments, SampleArguments]:
+def get_args(args: InputArgument = None) -> tuple[ModelArguments, DataArguments, TrainingArguments, SampleArguments]:
     """Parse arguments from command line or config file."""
-    parser = HfArgumentParser([DataArguments, ModelArguments, TrainingArguments, SampleArguments])
+    parser = HfArgumentParser([ModelArguments, DataArguments, TrainingArguments, SampleArguments])
     allow_extra_keys = is_env_enabled("ALLOW_EXTRA_KEYS")
 
     if args is None:
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/config/data_args.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/config/data_args.py
index f9b5d06a9..8693df429 100644
--- a/src/llamafactory/v1/config/data_args.py
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/config/data_args.py
@@ -18,7 +18,11 @@ from dataclasses import dataclass, field
 
 @dataclass
 class DataArguments:
-    dataset: str | None = field(
+    train_dataset: str | None = field(
         default=None,
-        metadata={"help": "Path to the dataset."},
+        metadata={"help": "Path to the training dataset."},
+    )
+    eval_dataset: str | None = field(
+        default=None,
+        metadata={"help": "Path to the evaluation dataset."},
     )
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/config/training_args.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/config/training_args.py
index e937170f7..67d09653c 100644
--- a/src/llamafactory/v1/config/training_args.py
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/config/training_args.py
@@ -33,13 +33,21 @@ class TrainingArguments:
         default=None,
         metadata={"help": "Global batch size for training, default to DP size * micro batch size."},
     )
+    cutoff_len: int = field(
+        default=2048,
+        metadata={"help": "Maximum sequence length for training."},
+    )
     learning_rate: float = field(
         default=1e-4,
         metadata={"help": "Learning rate for training."},
     )
-    cutoff_len: int = field(
-        default=2048,
-        metadata={"help": "Maximum sequence length for training."},
+    num_train_epochs: int = field(
+        default=3,
+        metadata={"help": "Number of training epochs."},
+    )
+    max_grad_norm: float = field(
+        default=1.0,
+        metadata={"help": "Maximum gradient norm for training."},
     )
     bf16: bool = field(
         default=False,
@@ -53,10 +61,24 @@ class TrainingArguments:
         default=16,
         metadata={"help": "Number of workers for batching."},
     )
+    enable_activation_checkpointing: bool = field(
+        default=True,
+        metadata={"help": "Enable activation checkpointing for training."},
+    )
     dist_config: PluginConfig | None = field(
         default=None,
         metadata={"help": "Distribution configuration for training."},
     )
+    optim_config: PluginConfig | None = field(
+        default=None,
+        metadata={"help": "Optimizer configuration for training."},
+    )
+    lr_scheduler_config: PluginConfig | None = field(
+        default=None,
+        metadata={"help": "Learning rate scheduler configuration for training."},
+    )
 
     def __post_init__(self) -> None:
         self.dist_config = get_plugin_config(self.dist_config)
+        self.optim_config = get_plugin_config(self.optim_config)
+        self.lr_scheduler_config = get_plugin_config(self.lr_scheduler_config)
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/core/base_sampler.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/core/base_sampler.py
index efa90bec1..1080b3f13 100644
--- a/src/llamafactory/v1/core/base_sampler.py
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/core/base_sampler.py
@@ -12,115 +12,14 @@
 # See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 # limitations under the License.
 
-import asyncio
-import os
-from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
 from collections.abc import AsyncGenerator
-from threading import Thread
 
-import torch
-from transformers import AsyncTextIteratorStreamer
-
-from ..accelerator.interface import DistributedInterface
 from ..config import ModelArguments, SampleArguments, SampleBackend
-from ..utils.helper import get_tokenizer
 from ..utils.types import HFModel, Message, Sample, TorchDataset
+from .utils.inference_engine import HuggingFaceEngine
 from .utils.rendering import Renderer
 
 
-class BaseEngine(ABC):
-    @abstractmethod
-    def __init__(
-        self,
-        args: SampleArguments,
-        model_args: ModelArguments,
-        model: HFModel,
-        renderer: Renderer,
-    ) -> None:
-        """Initialize the engine.
-
-        Args:
-            args: Sample arguments.
-            model_args: Model arguments.
-            model: Model.
-            renderer: Renderer.
-        """
-        ...
-
-    @abstractmethod
-    async def generate(self, messages: list[Message], tools: str | None = None) -> AsyncGenerator[str, None]:
-        """Generate tokens asynchronously.
-
-        Args:
-            messages: List of messages.
-            tools: Tools string.
-
-        Yields:
-            Generated tokens.
-        """
-        ...
-
-    @abstractmethod
-    async def batch_infer(self, dataset: TorchDataset) -> list[Sample]:
-        """Batch infer samples.
-
-        Args:
-            dataset: Torch dataset.
-
-        Returns:
-            List of samples.
-        """
-        ...
-
-
-class HuggingFaceEngine(BaseEngine):
-    def __init__(
-        self,
-        args: SampleArguments,
-        model_args: ModelArguments,
-        model: HFModel,
-        renderer: Renderer,
-    ) -> None:
-        self.args = args
-        self.model_args = model_args
-        self.model = model
-        self.renderer = renderer
-        self.semaphore = asyncio.Semaphore(int(os.getenv("MAX_CONCURRENT", "1")))
-
-    @torch.inference_mode()
-    async def generate(self, messages: list[Message], tools: str | None = None) -> AsyncGenerator[str, None]:
-        async with self.semaphore:
-            model_inputs = self.renderer.render_messages(messages, tools, is_generate=True)
-            streamer = AsyncTextIteratorStreamer(
-                tokenizer=get_tokenizer(self.renderer.processor),
-                skip_prompt=True,
-                skip_special_tokens=True,  # TODO: configurable
-            )
-            device = DistributedInterface().current_device
-            kwargs = {
-                "input_ids": torch.tensor([model_inputs["input_ids"]]).to(device),
-                "attention_mask": torch.tensor([model_inputs["attention_mask"]]).to(device),
-                "max_new_tokens": self.args.max_new_tokens,
-                "streamer": streamer,
-            }
-            thread = Thread(target=self.model.generate, kwargs=kwargs, daemon=True)
-            thread.start()
-
-            async for token in streamer:
-                yield token
-
-    async def batch_infer(self, dataset: TorchDataset) -> list[Sample]:
-        """Batch infer samples.
-
-        Args:
-            dataset: Torch dataset.
-
-        Returns:
-            List of samples.
-        """
-        raise NotImplementedError("Batch infer is not implemented.")
-
-
 class BaseSampler:
     """Base sampler.
 
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/core/base_trainer.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/core/base_trainer.py
index df9af26e4..e474b37a9 100644
--- a/src/llamafactory/v1/core/base_trainer.py
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/core/base_trainer.py
@@ -16,42 +16,166 @@
 
 Init Phase:
 
-1. Init dataloader.
+1. Init batch generator.
 2. Init optimizer (deepspeed).
 3. Shard model.
 4. Init optimizer (fsdp).
-5. Init scheduler.
+5. Init lr scheduler.
 
 Train Phase:
 1. Train Loop
 
 """
 
-from ..config.training_args import TrainingArguments
-from ..utils.types import HFModel, TorchDataset
+from abc import abstractmethod
+
+import torch
+import torch.nn.functional as F
+
+from ..accelerator.helper import ReduceOp
+from ..accelerator.interface import Dim, DistributedInterface
+from ..config import TrainingArguments
+from ..utils import logging
+from ..utils.helper import compute_valid_tokens
+from ..utils.types import BatchInput, HFModel, ModelOutput, Tensor, TorchDataset
+from .utils.batching import BatchGenerator
 from .utils.rendering import Renderer
 
 
+logger = logging.get_logger(__name__)
+
+
 class BaseTrainer:
     def __init__(
         self,
         args: TrainingArguments,
         model: HFModel,
         renderer: Renderer,
-        dataset: TorchDataset,
+        train_dataset: TorchDataset,
     ) -> None:
         self.args = args
         self.model = model
         self.renderer = renderer
-        self.dataset = dataset
-        self.optimizer = None
-        self.lr_scheduler = None
+        self.train_dataset = train_dataset
 
-    def _create_dataloader(self) -> None:
+        # info
+        self.global_step = 0
+
+        # cached variables
+        self.device = DistributedInterface().current_device
+        self.dp_size = DistributedInterface().get_world_size(Dim.DP)
+        self.model_input_names = self.renderer.processor.model_input_names
+
+        self._create_batch_generator()
+        self.num_training_steps = self.args.num_train_epochs * len(self.train_batch_generator)
+
+        if self.args.enable_activation_checkpointing:
+            self.model.gradient_checkpointing_enable({"use_reentrant": False})
+
+        if self.args.dist_config is not None:
+            shard_need_optimizer = self.args.dist_config.name == "deepspeed"
+        else:
+            shard_need_optimizer = False
+
+        if shard_need_optimizer:
+            self._init_optimizer()
+            self._shard_model()
+        else:
+            self._shard_model()
+            self._init_optimizer()
+
+        self._init_lr_scheduler()
+
+    def _create_batch_generator(self) -> None:
+        self.train_batch_generator = BatchGenerator(
+            dataset=self.train_dataset,
+            renderer=self.renderer,
+            micro_batch_size=self.args.micro_batch_size,
+            global_batch_size=self.args.global_batch_size,
+            cutoff_len=self.args.cutoff_len,
+            batching_workers=self.args.batching_workers,
+            batching_strategy=self.args.batching_strategy,
+        )
+
+    def _shard_model(self) -> None:
         pass
 
-    def _init_model_and_optimizer(self) -> None:
-        pass
+    def _init_optimizer(self) -> None:
+        """Init optimizer."""
+        if self.args.optim_config is None:
+            _trainable_params = [p for p in self.model.parameters() if p.requires_grad]
+            self.optimizer = torch.optim.AdamW(_trainable_params, lr=self.args.learning_rate)
+        else:
+            from ..plugins.trainer_plugins.optimizer import OptimizerPlugin
+
+            self.optimizer = OptimizerPlugin(self.args.optim_config.name)(self.model, self.args.optim_config)
+
+    def _init_lr_scheduler(self) -> None:
+        """Init lr scheduler."""
+        if self.args.lr_scheduler_config is None:
+            self.lr_scheduler = torch.optim.lr_scheduler.LambdaLR(self.optimizer, lr_lambda=lambda x: 1.0)
+        else:
+            from ..plugins.trainer_plugins.lr_scheduler import LRSchedulerPlugin
+
+            self.lr_scheduler = LRSchedulerPlugin(self.args.lr_scheduler_config.name)(
+                self.optimizer, self.num_training_steps, self.args.lr_scheduler_config
+            )
+
+    def compute_log_probs(self, model: HFModel, batch: BatchInput) -> Tensor:
+        """Compute log probs.
+
+        log_probs: Tensor of shape (batch_size, seq_len - 1)
+        """
+        batch_size, _ = batch["labels"].shape
+        model_inputs = {
+            k: v.to(self.device, non_blocking=True) for k, v in batch.items() if k in self.model_input_names
+        }
+        labels = batch["labels"].to(self.device, non_blocking=True)
+        outputs: ModelOutput = model(**model_inputs)
+        logits = outputs.logits.float()
+        shift_labels = labels[..., 1:].contiguous().view(-1)
+        shift_logits = logits[..., :-1, :].contiguous().view(shift_labels.size(0), -1)
+        return -F.cross_entropy(shift_logits, shift_labels, reduction="none").view(batch_size, -1)
+
+    @abstractmethod
+    def compute_loss(self, batch: BatchInput) -> Tensor:
+        """Compute the scalar loss."""
+        ...
 
     def fit(self) -> None:
-        pass
+        """Train the model."""
+        self.model.train()
+        for epoch in range(self.args.num_train_epochs):
+            self.train_batch_generator.set_epoch(epoch)
+            for micro_batches in self.train_batch_generator:
+                self.global_step += 1
+                step_loss = 0
+                step_valid_tokens = compute_valid_tokens(micro_batches)
+                step_valid_tokens = DistributedInterface().all_reduce(step_valid_tokens, op=ReduceOp.SUM)
+                for micro_batch in micro_batches:
+                    loss = self.compute_loss(micro_batch)
+                    mini_step_valid_tokens = compute_valid_tokens([micro_batch])
+                    # fsdp uses mean reduction so we need to scale the loss by dp_size
+                    loss = loss * mini_step_valid_tokens * self.dp_size / (step_valid_tokens + 1e-6)
+
+                    loss.backward()
+                    step_loss += loss.item()
+
+                grad_norm = torch.nn.utils.clip_grad_norm_(self.model.parameters(), self.args.max_grad_norm).item()
+                if not torch.isfinite(grad_norm):
+                    logger.warning_rank0(f"Gradient norm is not finite: {grad_norm}")
+                else:
+                    self.optimizer.step()
+
+                self.lr_scheduler.step()
+                self.optimizer.zero_grad()
+
+                step_loss, grad_norm = DistributedInterface().all_reduce([step_loss, grad_norm])
+                DistributedInterface().sync()
+                print(f"Epoch {epoch}, Step {self.global_step}, Loss: {step_loss:.4f}, Grad Norm: {grad_norm:.4f}")
+
+    def save_model(self) -> None:
+        """Save the model."""
+        self.model.save_pretrained(self.args.output_dir)
+        self.renderer.processor.save_pretrained(self.args.output_dir)
+        logger.info_rank0(f"Model saved to {self.args.output_dir}")
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/core/data_engine.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/core/data_engine.py
index 60a2667d0..b2cbf536e 100644
--- a/src/llamafactory/v1/core/data_engine.py
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/core/data_engine.py
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@
 """The definition of data engine.
 
 How to use:
-data_engine = DataEngine(data_args)
+data_engine = DataEngine(data_args.train_dataset)
 data_engine[i]: Get the sample via index.
 
 Init workflow:
@@ -41,7 +41,6 @@ from huggingface_hub import hf_hub_download
 from omegaconf import OmegaConf
 from torch.utils.data import Dataset
 
-from ..config.data_args import DataArguments
 from ..utils.types import DatasetInfo, HFDataset, Sample
 
 
@@ -52,9 +51,9 @@ class DataEngine(Dataset):
         data_args: Data arguments.
     """
 
-    def __init__(self, data_args: DataArguments) -> None:
-        self.args = data_args
-        """Data arguments."""
+    def __init__(self, dataset_path: str) -> None:
+        self.path = dataset_path
+        """Dataset path."""
         self.datasets: dict[str, HFDataset] = {}
         """Dict of (dataset_name, dataset)"""
         self.dataset_infos: dict[str, DatasetInfo] = {}
@@ -69,16 +68,16 @@ class DataEngine(Dataset):
 
     def _get_dataset_info(self) -> None:
         """Get dataset info from data arguments."""
-        if self.args.dataset.endswith(".yaml") and os.path.isfile(self.args.dataset):  # local file
-            self.dataset_infos = OmegaConf.load(self.args.dataset)
-        elif self.args.dataset.endswith(".yaml"):  # hf hub uri, e.g. llamafactory/v1-sft-demo/dataset_info.yaml
-            repo_id, filename = os.path.split(self.args.dataset)
+        if self.path.endswith(".yaml") and os.path.isfile(self.path):  # local file
+            self.dataset_infos = OmegaConf.load(self.path)
+        elif self.path.endswith(".yaml"):  # hf hub uri, e.g. llamafactory/v1-sft-demo/dataset_info.yaml
+            repo_id, filename = os.path.split(self.path)
             filepath = hf_hub_download(repo_id=repo_id, filename=filename, repo_type="dataset")
             self.dataset_infos = OmegaConf.load(filepath)
-        elif os.path.exists(self.args.dataset):  # local file(s)
-            self.dataset_infos = {"default": {"path": self.args.dataset, "source": "local"}}
+        elif os.path.exists(self.path):  # local file(s)
+            self.dataset_infos = {"default": {"path": self.path, "source": "local"}}
         else:  # hf hub dataset, e.g. llamafactory/v1-sft-demo
-            self.dataset_infos = {"default": {"path": self.args.dataset}}
+            self.dataset_infos = {"default": {"path": self.path}}
 
     def _load_dataset(self) -> None:
         """Load datasets according to dataset info."""
@@ -187,11 +186,11 @@ class DataEngine(Dataset):
 
 if __name__ == "__main__":
     """
-    python -m llamafactory.v1.core.data_engine --dataset data/v1_sft_demo.yaml
-    python -m llamafactory.v1.core.data_engine --dataset data/v1_dpo_demo.yaml
+    python -m llamafactory.v1.core.data_engine --train_dataset data/v1_sft_demo.yaml
+    python -m llamafactory.v1.core.data_engine --train_dataset data/v1_dpo_demo.yaml
     """
     from ..config.arg_parser import get_args
 
-    data_args, *_ = get_args()
-    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args=data_args)
+    _, data_args, *_ = get_args()
+    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args.train_dataset)
     print(data_engine[0])
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/core/model_engine.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/core/model_engine.py
index 849d37fa9..0a5a00204 100644
--- a/src/llamafactory/v1/core/model_engine.py
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/core/model_engine.py
@@ -153,7 +153,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
     """
     from ..config.arg_parser import get_args
 
-    _, model_args, *_ = get_args()
+    model_args, *_ = get_args()
     model_engine = ModelEngine(model_args=model_args)
     print(model_engine.processor)
     print(model_engine.model_config)
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/core/utils/batching.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/core/utils/batching.py
index 65511288d..100bae4e5 100644
--- a/src/llamafactory/v1/core/utils/batching.py
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/core/utils/batching.py
@@ -216,7 +216,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
     """
     python -m llamafactory.v1.core.utils.batching \
         --model llamafactory/tiny-random-qwen2.5 \
-        --dataset data/v1_sft_demo.yaml \
+        --train_dataset data/v1_sft_demo.yaml \
         --micro_batch_size 2 \
         --global_batch_size 4 \
         --batching_workers 0
@@ -225,8 +225,8 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
     from ..data_engine import DataEngine
     from ..model_engine import ModelEngine
 
-    data_args, model_args, training_args, _ = get_args()
-    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args=data_args)
+    model_args, data_args, training_args, _ = get_args()
+    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args.train_dataset)
     model_engine = ModelEngine(model_args=model_args)
     batch_generator = BatchGenerator(
         data_engine,
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/core/utils/data_collator.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/core/utils/data_collator.py
deleted file mode 100644
index a425f02f9..000000000
--- a/src/llamafactory/v1/core/utils/data_collator.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,119 +0,0 @@
-# Copyright 2025 the LlamaFactory team.
-#
-# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
-# You may obtain a copy of the License at
-#
-#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-#
-# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-# limitations under the License.
-
-from collections import defaultdict
-from collections.abc import Sequence
-from dataclasses import dataclass
-from typing import Any
-
-import torch
-import torch.nn.functional as F
-from torch.nn.utils.rnn import pad_sequence
-from torch.utils.data._utils.collate import default_collate
-
-from ....extras.constants import IGNORE_INDEX
-from ...plugins.data_plugins.template import Template
-from ...utils.types import Processor, Tensor
-
-
-def len2culen(seqlens: "torch.Tensor") -> "torch.Tensor":  # FIXME move to utils
-    """Convert sequence lengths to cumulative sequence lengths."""
-    return F.pad(torch.cumsum(seqlens, dim=0), (1, 0)).type(torch.int32)
-
-
-class DataCollator:
-    """Default Data collator."""
-
-    processor: "Processor"  # processor name -> map to encode_messages function
-
-    def __post_init__(self):
-        # callback for text tokenizer
-        self.tokenizer = self.processor.tokenizer if hasattr(self.processor, "tokenizer") else self.processor
-
-    def __call__(self, features: list[dict[str, Any]]) -> dict[str, Tensor]:
-        """Collate features into a batch."""
-        batch = defaultdict(list)
-
-        # batching features
-        for feature in features:
-            for key in feature.keys():
-                batch[key].append(feature[key])
-
-        for key in batch.keys():
-            # process padding features
-            if key in ["input_ids", "attention_mask", "position_ids"]:
-                padding_value = self.tokenizer.pad_token_id if key == "input_ids" else 0
-                batch[key] = pad_sequence(batch[key], batch_first=True, padding_value=padding_value)
-            elif key in ["labels"]:
-                batch[key] = pad_sequence(batch[key], batch_first=True, padding_value=IGNORE_INDEX)
-            else:
-                batch[key] = default_collate(batch[key])
-
-        return batch
-        # sft: messages
-        # dpo: chosen_messages, rejected_messages
-
-
-@dataclass
-class DefaultCollator(DataCollator):
-    """Example for now."""
-
-    processor: "Processor"  # processor name -> map to encode_messages function
-    template: "Template"
-
-    def __call__(self, messages: list[list[dict[str, Any]]]) -> dict[str, Tensor]:
-        features = []
-
-        # Check if data is already tokenized (contains input_ids)
-        if messages and isinstance(messages[0], dict) and "input_ids" in messages[0]:
-            for feature in messages:
-                if not isinstance(feature, dict):
-                    raise ValueError(f"Expected dict but got {type(feature)}")
-                tensor_feature = {
-                    k: torch.tensor(v, dtype=torch.long) if not isinstance(v, torch.Tensor) else v
-                    for k, v in feature.items()
-                }
-                features.append(tensor_feature)
-        else:
-            # raw messages need to be encoded
-            for message in messages:
-                encoded_message = self.template.encode_messages(self.tokenizer, message)
-                encoded_message = {k: torch.tensor(v, dtype=torch.long) for k, v in encoded_message.items()}
-                features.append(encoded_message)
-
-        return super().__call__(features)
-
-
-@dataclass
-class PairwiseCollator(DataCollator):
-    pass
-
-
-@dataclass
-class DataCollatorWithPacking(DefaultCollator):
-    """Data collator with packing."""
-
-    processor: "Processor"
-    template: "Template"
-
-    def __call__(self, features: Sequence[dict[str, "torch.Tensor"]]) -> dict[str, "torch.Tensor"]:
-        seqlens = torch.tensor([len(feature["input_ids"]) for feature in features], dtype=torch.long)
-        batch = {"cu_seqlens": len2culen(seqlens)}
-        for input_name in features[0].keys():
-            if input_name in ("input_ids", "attention_mask", "labels"):
-                batch[input_name] = torch.cat([feature[input_name] for feature in features])
-            else:
-                batch[input_name] = default_collate([feature[input_name] for feature in features])
-
-        return batch
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/core/utils/inference_engine.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/core/utils/inference_engine.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..b090dae81
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/core/utils/inference_engine.py
@@ -0,0 +1,121 @@
+# Copyright 2025 the LlamaFactory team.
+#
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+
+import asyncio
+import os
+from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
+from collections.abc import AsyncGenerator
+from threading import Thread
+
+import torch
+from transformers import AsyncTextIteratorStreamer
+
+from ...accelerator.interface import DistributedInterface
+from ...config import ModelArguments, SampleArguments
+from ...utils.helper import get_tokenizer
+from ...utils.types import HFModel, Message, Sample, TorchDataset
+from .rendering import Renderer
+
+
+class BaseEngine(ABC):
+    @abstractmethod
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        args: SampleArguments,
+        model_args: ModelArguments,
+        model: HFModel,
+        renderer: Renderer,
+    ) -> None:
+        """Initialize the engine.
+
+        Args:
+            args: Sample arguments.
+            model_args: Model arguments.
+            model: Model.
+            renderer: Renderer.
+        """
+        ...
+
+    @abstractmethod
+    async def generate(self, messages: list[Message], tools: str | None = None) -> AsyncGenerator[str, None]:
+        """Generate tokens asynchronously.
+
+        Args:
+            messages: List of messages.
+            tools: Tools string.
+
+        Yields:
+            Generated tokens.
+        """
+        ...
+
+    @abstractmethod
+    async def batch_infer(self, dataset: TorchDataset) -> list[Sample]:
+        """Batch infer samples.
+
+        Args:
+            dataset: Torch dataset.
+
+        Returns:
+            List of samples.
+        """
+        ...
+
+
+class HuggingFaceEngine(BaseEngine):
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        args: SampleArguments,
+        model_args: ModelArguments,
+        model: HFModel,
+        renderer: Renderer,
+    ) -> None:
+        self.args = args
+        self.model_args = model_args
+        self.model = model
+        self.renderer = renderer
+        self.semaphore = asyncio.Semaphore(int(os.getenv("MAX_CONCURRENT", "1")))
+
+    @torch.inference_mode()
+    async def generate(self, messages: list[Message], tools: str | None = None) -> AsyncGenerator[str, None]:
+        async with self.semaphore:
+            model_inputs = self.renderer.render_messages(messages, tools, is_generate=True)
+            streamer = AsyncTextIteratorStreamer(
+                tokenizer=get_tokenizer(self.renderer.processor),
+                skip_prompt=True,
+                skip_special_tokens=True,  # TODO: configurable
+            )
+            device = DistributedInterface().current_device
+            kwargs = {
+                "input_ids": torch.tensor([model_inputs["input_ids"]]).to(device),
+                "attention_mask": torch.tensor([model_inputs["attention_mask"]]).to(device),
+                "max_new_tokens": self.args.max_new_tokens,
+                "streamer": streamer,
+            }
+            thread = Thread(target=self.model.generate, kwargs=kwargs, daemon=True)
+            thread.start()
+
+            async for token in streamer:
+                yield token
+
+    async def batch_infer(self, dataset: TorchDataset) -> list[Sample]:
+        """Batch infer samples.
+
+        Args:
+            dataset: Torch dataset.
+
+        Returns:
+            List of samples.
+        """
+        raise NotImplementedError("Batch infer is not implemented.")
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/core/utils/lr_scheduler.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/core/utils/lr_scheduler.py
deleted file mode 100644
index e69de29bb..000000000
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/core/utils/rendering.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/core/utils/rendering.py
index b4c0b02d6..cbe8383c4 100644
--- a/src/llamafactory/v1/core/utils/rendering.py
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/core/utils/rendering.py
@@ -142,8 +142,8 @@ class Renderer:
             elif "chosen_messages" in sample and "rejected_messages" in sample:
                 chosen_input = self.render_messages(sample["chosen_messages"], sample.get("tools"))
                 rejected_input = self.render_messages(sample["rejected_messages"], sample.get("tools"))
-                chosen_input["token_type_ids"] = [0] * len(chosen_input["input_ids"])
-                rejected_input["token_type_ids"] = [1] * len(rejected_input["input_ids"])
+                chosen_input["token_type_ids"] = [1] * len(chosen_input["input_ids"])
+                rejected_input["token_type_ids"] = [2] * len(rejected_input["input_ids"])
                 model_input = ModelInput(
                     input_ids=chosen_input["input_ids"] + rejected_input["input_ids"],
                     attention_mask=chosen_input["attention_mask"] + rejected_input["attention_mask"],
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/plugins/trainer_plugins/batching.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/plugins/trainer_plugins/batching.py
index f61de78d1..aef22eac2 100644
--- a/src/llamafactory/v1/plugins/trainer_plugins/batching.py
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/plugins/trainer_plugins/batching.py
@@ -18,8 +18,11 @@ from ...utils.types import BatchInfo, BatchInput, DataLoader
 
 
 class BatchingPlugin(BasePlugin):
-    def compute_length(self, dataloader: DataLoader) -> int:
-        """Compute the length of the batch generator."""
+    def compute_length(self, data_provider: DataLoader) -> int:
+        """Compute the length of the batch generator.
+
+        The approximate length is used to calculate the lr schedule.
+        """
         raise NotImplementedError()
 
     def fill_buffer(self, buffer: StatefulBuffer, batch_info: BatchInfo) -> None:
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/plugins/trainer_plugins/lr_scheduler.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/plugins/trainer_plugins/lr_scheduler.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..02c9e8b03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/plugins/trainer_plugins/lr_scheduler.py
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+# Copyright 2025 the LlamaFactory team.
+#
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+
+from ...utils.plugin import BasePlugin
+
+
+class LRSchedulerPlugin(BasePlugin):
+    pass
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/plugins/trainer_plugins/optimizer.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/plugins/trainer_plugins/optimizer.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..d040b0e29
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/plugins/trainer_plugins/optimizer.py
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+# Copyright 2025 the LlamaFactory team.
+#
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+
+from ...utils.plugin import BasePlugin
+
+
+class OptimizerPlugin(BasePlugin):
+    pass
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/samplers/cli_sampler.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/samplers/cli_sampler.py
index d102ac84b..40647165f 100644
--- a/src/llamafactory/v1/samplers/cli_sampler.py
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/samplers/cli_sampler.py
@@ -73,14 +73,14 @@ class SyncSampler(BaseSampler):
 
 
 def run_chat(args: InputArgument = None):
-    data_args, model_args, _, sample_args = get_args(args)
+    model_args, data_args, _, sample_args = get_args(args)
     if sample_args.sample_backend != SampleBackend.HF:
         model_args.init_plugin = {"name": "init_on_meta"}
 
     model_engine = ModelEngine(model_args)
     sampler = SyncSampler(sample_args, model_args, model_engine.model, model_engine.renderer)
-    if data_args.dataset is not None:
-        dataset = DataEngine(data_args)
+    if data_args.train_dataset is not None:
+        dataset = DataEngine(data_args.train_dataset)
         sampler.batch_infer(dataset)
     else:
         if os.name != "nt":
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/trainers/sft_trainer.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/trainers/sft_trainer.py
index 3a91c4f4c..898b54f98 100644
--- a/src/llamafactory/v1/trainers/sft_trainer.py
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/trainers/sft_trainer.py
@@ -18,21 +18,35 @@ from ..config import InputArgument, get_args
 from ..core.base_trainer import BaseTrainer
 from ..core.data_engine import DataEngine
 from ..core.model_engine import ModelEngine
+from ..utils.types import BatchInput, Tensor
 
 
 class SFTTrainer(BaseTrainer):
-    pass
+    def compute_loss(self, batch: BatchInput) -> Tensor:
+        shift_loss_weights = batch["loss_weights"].to(self.device, non_blocking=True)[..., 1:]
+        log_probs = self.compute_log_probs(self.model, batch)
+        loss = (-log_probs * shift_loss_weights).sum() / (shift_loss_weights.sum() + 1e-6)
+        return loss
 
 
 def run_sft(args: InputArgument = None):
     model_args, data_args, training_args, _ = get_args(args)
     DistributedInterface(training_args.dist_config)
-    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args)
+    train_dataset = DataEngine(data_args.train_dataset)
     model_engine = ModelEngine(model_args)
     trainer = SFTTrainer(
         args=training_args,
         model=model_engine.model,
         renderer=model_engine.renderer,
-        dataset=data_engine,
+        train_dataset=train_dataset,
     )
     trainer.fit()
+    trainer.save_model()
+    DistributedInterface().destroy()
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    """
+    python -m llamafactory.v1.trainers.sft_trainer --model Qwen/Qwen3-0.6B --train_dataset data/v1_sft_demo.yaml
+    """
+    run_sft()
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/utils/helper.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/utils/helper.py
index 8b94e71a7..3f7b75505 100644
--- a/src/llamafactory/v1/utils/helper.py
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/utils/helper.py
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@
 import torch
 from transformers import PreTrainedTokenizer
 
+from ..accelerator.interface import DistributedInterface
 from .constants import IGNORE_INDEX
 from .types import BatchInput, ModelInput, Processor, Tensor
 
@@ -73,3 +74,20 @@ def pad_and_truncate(samples: list[ModelInput], max_seqlen: int) -> list[BatchIn
         padded_samples.append(padded_sample)
 
     return padded_samples
+
+
+def compute_valid_tokens(batches: list[BatchInput]) -> int:
+    """Compute valid tokens in batches.
+
+    Args:
+        batches: Batches.
+
+    Returns:
+        Number of valid tokens.
+    """
+    device = DistributedInterface().current_device
+    return sum(
+        (batch["labels"].to(device, non_blocking=True) != IGNORE_INDEX).sum().item()
+        for batch in batches
+        if "labels" in batch
+    )
diff --git a/src/llamafactory/v1/utils/types.py b/src/llamafactory/v1/utils/types.py
index d2a1e52f3..2f3906968 100644
--- a/src/llamafactory/v1/utils/types.py
+++ b/src/llamafactory/v1/utils/types.py
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@
 # limitations under the License.
 
 from collections.abc import Iterator
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Literal, NotRequired, TypedDict, Union
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Literal, NamedTuple, NotRequired, TypedDict, Union
 
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
@@ -146,7 +146,7 @@ class ModelInput(TypedDict, total=False):
     position_ids: NotRequired[list[int] | list[list[int]]]
     """Position ids for the model (optional)."""
     token_type_ids: NotRequired[list[int]]
-    """Token type ids used in DPO, 0 represents the chosen messages, 1 represents the rejected messages."""
+    """Token type ids used in DPO, 1 represents the chosen messages, 2 represents the rejected messages."""
 
 
 class BatchInput(TypedDict, total=False):
@@ -161,7 +161,7 @@ class BatchInput(TypedDict, total=False):
     position_ids: NotRequired[Tensor]
     """Position ids for the model (optional)."""
     token_type_ids: NotRequired[Tensor]
-    """Token type ids used in DPO, 0 represents the chosen messages, 1 represents the rejected messages."""
+    """Token type ids used in DPO, 1 represents the chosen messages, 2 represents the rejected messages."""
 
 
 class BatchInfo(TypedDict):
@@ -173,3 +173,8 @@ class BatchInfo(TypedDict):
     """Cutoff length."""
     data_iter: Iterator[list[ModelInput]]
     """Data iterator."""
+
+
+class ModelOutput(NamedTuple):
+    logits: Tensor
+    """Logits for the model."""
diff --git a/tests/version.txt b/tests/version.txt
index e082f373b..a1f9032b0 100644
--- a/tests/version.txt
+++ b/tests/version.txt
@@ -1,2 +1,2 @@
 # change if test fails or cache is outdated
-0.9.5.104
+0.9.5.105
diff --git a/tests_v1/config/test_args_parser.py b/tests_v1/config/test_args_parser.py
index 8772f92d3..db235ab54 100644
--- a/tests_v1/config/test_args_parser.py
+++ b/tests_v1/config/test_args_parser.py
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ def test_get_args_from_yaml(tmp_path: Path):
         quant_config: null
 
         ### data
-        dataset: llamafactory/v1-sft-demo
+        train_dataset: llamafactory/v1-sft-demo
 
         ### training
         output_dir: outputs/test_run
@@ -56,8 +56,8 @@ def test_get_args_from_yaml(tmp_path: Path):
     test_argv = ["test_args_parser.py", str(config_file)]
 
     with patch.object(sys, "argv", test_argv):
-        data_args, model_args, training_args, sample_args = get_args()
-        assert data_args.dataset == "llamafactory/v1-sft-demo"
+        model_args, data_args, training_args, sample_args = get_args()
+        assert data_args.train_dataset == "llamafactory/v1-sft-demo"
         assert model_args.model == "llamafactory/tiny-random-qwen3"
         assert model_args.kernel_config.name == "auto"
         assert model_args.kernel_config.get("include_kernels") == "auto"
diff --git a/tests_v1/core/test_data_engine.py b/tests_v1/core/test_data_engine.py
index d1b2223ad..373069a66 100644
--- a/tests_v1/core/test_data_engine.py
+++ b/tests_v1/core/test_data_engine.py
@@ -23,8 +23,8 @@ from llamafactory.v1.core.data_engine import DataEngine
 
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("num_samples", [16])
 def test_map_dataset(num_samples: int):
-    data_args = DataArguments(dataset="llamafactory/v1-sft-demo")
-    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args)
+    data_args = DataArguments(train_dataset="llamafactory/v1-sft-demo")
+    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args.train_dataset)
     original_data = load_dataset("llamafactory/v1-sft-demo", split="train")
     indexes = random.choices(range(len(data_engine)), k=num_samples)
     for index in indexes:
diff --git a/tests_v1/core/utils/test_batching.py b/tests_v1/core/utils/test_batching.py
index ba74d21d7..87e8a89cb 100644
--- a/tests_v1/core/utils/test_batching.py
+++ b/tests_v1/core/utils/test_batching.py
@@ -19,8 +19,8 @@ from llamafactory.v1.core.utils.batching import BatchGenerator
 
 
 def test_normal_batching():
-    data_args = DataArguments(dataset="llamafactory/v1-sft-demo")
-    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args=data_args)
+    data_args = DataArguments(train_dataset="llamafactory/v1-sft-demo")
+    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args.train_dataset)
     model_args = ModelArguments(model="llamafactory/tiny-random-qwen3")
     model_engine = ModelEngine(model_args=model_args)
     training_args = TrainingArguments(
diff --git a/tests_v1/core/utils/test_rendering.py b/tests_v1/core/utils/test_rendering.py
index 3963ccb8a..f3e5f83c6 100644
--- a/tests_v1/core/utils/test_rendering.py
+++ b/tests_v1/core/utils/test_rendering.py
@@ -111,8 +111,8 @@ def test_chatml_parse():
 def test_chatml_rendering_remote(num_samples: int):
     tokenizer: Processor = AutoTokenizer.from_pretrained("llamafactory/tiny-random-qwen3")
     renderer = Renderer(template="chatml", processor=tokenizer)
-    data_args = DataArguments(dataset="llamafactory/v1-sft-demo")
-    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args)
+    data_args = DataArguments(train_dataset="llamafactory/v1-sft-demo")
+    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args.train_dataset)
     for index in range(num_samples):
         v1_inputs = renderer.render_messages(data_engine[index]["messages"], is_generate=True)
         prefix = tokenizer.encode("<|im_start|>user\n", add_special_tokens=False)
@@ -167,8 +167,8 @@ def test_qwen3_nothink_parse():
 def test_qwen3_nothink_rendering_remote(num_samples: int):
     tokenizer: Processor = AutoTokenizer.from_pretrained("Qwen/Qwen3-4B-Instruct-2507")
     renderer = Renderer(template="qwen3_nothink", processor=tokenizer)
-    data_args = DataArguments(dataset="llamafactory/reason-tool-use-demo-1500")
-    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args)
+    data_args = DataArguments(train_dataset="llamafactory/reason-tool-use-demo-1500")
+    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args.train_dataset)
     for index in range(num_samples):
         v1_inputs = renderer.render_messages(data_engine[index]["messages"], tools=data_engine[index]["tools"])
         prefix_text = (
@@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ def test_process_dpo_samples():
     model_inputs = renderer.process_samples(samples)
     assert len(model_inputs) == 1
     assert model_inputs[0]["input_ids"] == hf_inputs * 2
-    assert model_inputs[0]["token_type_ids"] == [0] * len(hf_inputs) + [1] * len(hf_inputs)
+    assert model_inputs[0]["token_type_ids"] == [1] * len(hf_inputs) + [2] * len(hf_inputs)
     assert model_inputs[0]["extra_info"] == "test"
     assert model_inputs[0]["_dataset_name"] == "default"
 
diff --git a/tests_v1/plugins/data_plugins/test_converter.py b/tests_v1/plugins/data_plugins/test_converter.py
index 0f47d8e55..1722b4a67 100644
--- a/tests_v1/plugins/data_plugins/test_converter.py
+++ b/tests_v1/plugins/data_plugins/test_converter.py
@@ -24,8 +24,8 @@ from llamafactory.v1.plugins.data_plugins.converter import DataConverterPlugin
 
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("num_samples", [16])
 def test_alpaca_converter(num_samples: int):
-    data_args = DataArguments(dataset="llamafactory/v1-dataset-info/tiny-supervised-dataset.yaml")
-    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args)
+    data_args = DataArguments(train_dataset="llamafactory/v1-dataset-info/tiny-supervised-dataset.yaml")
+    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args.train_dataset)
     original_data = load_dataset("llamafactory/tiny-supervised-dataset", split="train")
     indexes = random.choices(range(len(data_engine)), k=num_samples)
     for index in indexes:
@@ -73,8 +73,8 @@ def test_sharegpt_converter():
 
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("num_samples", [16])
 def test_pair_converter(num_samples: int):
-    data_args = DataArguments(dataset="llamafactory/v1-dataset-info/orca-dpo-pairs.yaml")
-    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args)
+    data_args = DataArguments(train_dataset="llamafactory/v1-dataset-info/orca-dpo-pairs.yaml")
+    data_engine = DataEngine(data_args.train_dataset)
     original_data = load_dataset("HuggingFaceH4/orca_dpo_pairs", split="train_prefs")
     indexes = random.choices(range(len(data_engine)), k=num_samples)
     for index in indexes:
diff --git a/tests_v1/plugins/model_plugins/test_init_plugin.py b/tests_v1/plugins/model_plugins/test_init_plugin.py
index 7c4e154e8..947f18bd9 100644
--- a/tests_v1/plugins/model_plugins/test_init_plugin.py
+++ b/tests_v1/plugins/model_plugins/test_init_plugin.py
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ from llamafactory.v1.core.model_engine import ModelEngine
 
 
 def test_init_on_meta():
-    _, model_args, *_ = get_args(
+    model_args, *_ = get_args(
         dict(
             model="llamafactory/tiny-random-qwen3",
             init_config={"name": "init_on_meta"},
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ def test_init_on_meta():
 
 
 def test_init_on_rank0():
-    _, model_args, *_ = get_args(
+    model_args, *_ = get_args(
         dict(
             model="llamafactory/tiny-random-qwen3",
             init_config={"name": "init_on_rank0"},
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ def test_init_on_rank0():
 
 
 def test_init_on_default():
-    _, model_args, *_ = get_args(
+    model_args, *_ = get_args(
         dict(
             model="llamafactory/tiny-random-qwen3",
             init_config={"name": "init_on_default"},
diff --git a/tests_v1/plugins/model_plugins/test_kernel_plugin.py b/tests_v1/plugins/model_plugins/test_kernel_plugin.py
index 90524b7ba..10e8e413a 100644
--- a/tests_v1/plugins/model_plugins/test_kernel_plugin.py
+++ b/tests_v1/plugins/model_plugins/test_kernel_plugin.py
@@ -43,7 +43,8 @@ def test_apply_kernel(mock_get_accelerator: MagicMock):
     reload_kernels()
     from llamafactory.v1.plugins.model_plugins.kernels.interface import apply_default_kernels
 
-    model = AutoModelForCausalLM.from_pretrained("llamafactory/tiny-random-qwen3")
+    # NOTE: use a special model to avoid contamination by other tests
+    model = AutoModelForCausalLM.from_pretrained("llamafactory/tiny-random-qwen2.5")
     original_rmsnorm_forward = model.model.layers[0].input_layernorm.forward
     original_swiglu_forward = model.model.layers[0].mlp.forward
     model = apply_default_kernels(model=model, include_kernels="npu_fused_rmsnorm")
@@ -62,7 +63,8 @@ def test_apply_all_kernels(mock_get_accelerator: MagicMock):
     reload_kernels()
     from llamafactory.v1.plugins.model_plugins.kernels.interface import apply_default_kernels
 
-    model = AutoModelForCausalLM.from_pretrained("llamafactory/tiny-random-qwen3")
+    # NOTE: use a special model to avoid contamination by other tests
+    model = AutoModelForCausalLM.from_pretrained("llamafactory/tiny-random-qwen2.5")
 
     original_rmsnorm_forward = model.model.layers[0].input_layernorm.forward
     original_swiglu_forward = model.model.layers[0].mlp.forward